Bright-spot
Chapter 7 - Introduction to Petroleum SeismologyComparison of P-wave (a) and converted PS-wave (b) images through the same geological section. The promising amplitude anomaly (or bright spot) on the P-wave section may be caused either by hydrocarbons or by rock effects (lithology). The disappearance of the bright spot from the PS section strongly indicates that it is caused by hydrocarbons alone (courtesy Statoil)
In the marine exploration context, one of the first applications of the joint interpretation of P-wave and S-wave data was to verify the P-wave bright-spot amplitude anomalyseen in the P-wave section in (a) as a direct indication of gas saturation. At a reservoir that changes laterally from water-saturated to gas-saturated, the bright spot represents a strong increase in P-wave reflectivity resulting from a significant drop in P-wave velocity in the presence of the gas. Since the S-wave velocities are not very sensitive to differences in water and gas saturation, there should be no S-wave bright spot associated with gas saturation. This is indeed what is observed on the S-wave section in (b). Most likely, the reservoir is thus gas-saturated. Had there been an S-wave amplitude anomaly coinciding with the P-wave amplitude anomaly, the bright spot would not have been associated with gas saturation.
Other Images in Chapter 7
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An example of the sailing path of a marine vessel in a towed-streamer survey
Images - Chapter 8
An example of the sailing path of a marine vessel in a towed-streamer survey. Note that the time for turning from one sailing line to another is about nine hours for vessels carrying streamers that are 10 km long. The dotted line indicates the turning legs of the sailing path.
This figure illustrates a typical sailing path of a 3D survey; the vessel travels back and forth, shooting and collecting data along many parallel lines, resulting in seismic data generated along lines 25 to 50 meters apart. Note that it takes about nine hours to turn from one sailing line to another for a vessel carrying 10-km-long streamers. Today, data are recorded even when the vessel is turning.
A shot diagram
Images - Chapter 7 A display of source and receiver distribution of a 2D seismic line in the so-called shot diagram. The rows corresponding to common-shot gathers and columns to common-receiver gathers. The diagonal is the zero-offset section, and all the other lines parallel to the diagonal are common-offset gathers (also known as common-offset sections). The lines perpendicular to the diagonal are the CMP gathers.
Another illustration of towed streamer acquisition
Images - Chapter 7 Another illustration of towed streamer acquisition
Interference noise
Images - Chapter 7 An illustration of interference noise in seismic data before and after. This figure shows the stack of seismic interference noise contaminated shots from another line in the Gulf of Mexico. Interference noise is clearly visible. Attenuation of seismic interference noise can be achieved by the use f-x prediction filters. Courtesy of Western Geco.
Other examples of structural traps
Images - Chapter 1 Structural traps. (A) Tilted fault blocks in an extensional regime. The seals are overlying mudstones and cross-fault juxtaposition against mudstones. (B) Rollover anticline on thrust. Petroleum accumulations may occur on both the hanging wall and the footwall. The hanging wall accumulation is dependent on a subthrust fault seal, whereas at least part of the hanging wall trap is likely to be a simple, four-way, dip-closed structure. (C) Lateral seal of a trap against a salt diapir and compactional drape trap over the diapir crest. (D) Diapiric mudstone associated trap with lateral seal against mud wall. Diapiric mud associated traps share many common features with that of salt. In this diagram, the diapiric mud wall developed at the core of a compressional fold. (E) Compactional drape over a basement block commonly creates enormous low-relief traps. (F) Gravity-generated trapping commonly occurs in deltaic sequences. Sediment loading causes gravity-driven failure and produces convex-down (listric) faults. The hanging wall of the fault rotates, creating space for sediment accumulation adjacent to the fault planes. The marker beds (grey) illustrate the form of the structure that has many favourable sites for petroleum accumulation. Adapted from Gluyas JG and Swarbrick RE (2003) Petroleum Geoscience. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
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