f-k spectra

f-k spectra for (a) 2.5-m, (b) 5-m, and (c) 12.5-m spacing between traces.

Spatial aliasing can also occurs for multidimensional signal, like 2D signals. However, with regard to the removal of the spatial aliasing effects, things are very different, because we are generally dealing with two (or more) dimensions. Let us start by looking at examples of $f-k$ plots of aliased seismic data. Consider a 2D signal made of four dipping events, as depicted in the previous figure. This 2D signal represents a zero-offset section. This figure shows the f-k amplitude spectrum of this signal for three spacing intervals between traces: 2.5 m, 5 m, and 12.5 m. The data are considered spatially aliased if some of the energy of the data is wrapped around in the f-k amplitude spectrum plot. For 2.5-m spacing, the data are not aliased, and the different dipping events in the t-x map onto straight lines in the f-k domain with inverse slopes, as discussed earlier. For 5-m spacing, we notice that event D is aliased. However, contrary to what we discussed in Chapter 4 for one-dimensional signals (single variable signals), a wrap-around caused by spatial aliasing may sometimes not include any overlapping with the nonaliased signal, as illustrated in (b). In this case, the effect of aliasing can be corrected by zeroing the aliased region in the f-k domain (see the section on dip filtering for more details).

By increasing the spacing between traces to 12.5 m, we can see that events D and C are now severely aliased and overlap with the nonaliased signal.

Other Images in Chapter 8

An example of the sailing path of a marine vessel in a towed-streamer survey

Images - Chapter 8 An example of the sailing path of a marine vessel in a towed-streamer survey. Note that the time for turning from one sailing line to another is about nine hours for vessels carrying streamers that are 10 km long. The dotted line indicates the turning legs of the sailing path.

This figure illustrates a typical sailing path of a 3D survey; the vessel travels back and forth, shooting and collecting data along many parallel lines, resulting in seismic data generated along lines 25 to 50 meters apart. Note that it takes about nine hours to turn from one sailing line to another for a vessel carrying 10-km-long streamers. Today, data are recorded even when the vessel is turning.

A shot diagram

Images - Chapter 7 A display of source and receiver distribution of a 2D seismic line in the so-called shot diagram. The rows corresponding to common-shot gathers and columns to common-receiver gathers. The diagonal is the zero-offset section, and all the other lines parallel to the diagonal are common-offset gathers (also known as common-offset sections). The lines perpendicular to the diagonal are the CMP gathers.

Another illustration of towed streamer acquisition

Images - Chapter 7 Another illustration of towed streamer acquisition

Interference noise

Images - Chapter 7 An illustration of interference noise in seismic data before and after. This figure shows the stack of seismic interference noise contaminated shots from another line in the Gulf of Mexico. Interference noise is clearly visible. Attenuation of seismic interference noise can be achieved by the use f-x prediction filters. Courtesy of Western Geco.

Other examples of structural traps

Images - Chapter 1 Structural traps. (A) Tilted fault blocks in an extensional regime. The seals are overlying mudstones and cross-fault juxtaposition against mudstones. (B) Rollover anticline on thrust. Petroleum accumulations may occur on both the hanging wall and the footwall. The hanging wall accumulation is dependent on a subthrust fault seal, whereas at least part of the hanging wall trap is likely to be a simple, four-way, dip-closed structure. (C) Lateral seal of a trap against a salt diapir and compactional drape trap over the diapir crest. (D) Diapiric mudstone associated trap with lateral seal against mud wall. Diapiric mud associated traps share many common features with that of salt. In this diagram, the diapiric mud wall developed at the core of a compressional fold. (E) Compactional drape over a basement block commonly creates enormous low-relief traps. (F) Gravity-generated trapping commonly occurs in deltaic sequences. Sediment loading causes gravity-driven failure and produces convex-down (listric) faults. The hanging wall of the fault rotates, creating space for sediment accumulation adjacent to the fault planes. The marker beds (grey) illustrate the form of the structure that has many favourable sites for petroleum accumulation. Adapted from Gluyas JG and Swarbrick RE (2003) Petroleum Geoscience. Oxford: Blackwell Science.